Yemen’s warring parties agreed to a ceasefire in the Red Sea city of Hodeidah last week, a major breakthrough that was expected to end violence in the flashpoint city.

After a week of consultations in the Swedish town of Rimbo, representatives from the Houthi movement and the government of President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi agreed to pull back their fighters to allow the deployment of UN-supervised neutral forces and the establishment of humanitarian corridors.

But just a day after the historic truce was reached, clashes erupted between the opposing sides.

At least 30 fighters have been killed in the past three days and the intermittent violence threatens to upend the hard-won accord.

Who’s fighting who and why?

Since 2014, Yemen has been wracked by a multi-sided conflict involving local, regional, and international actors.

The Houthis, a group of Zaidi Shia Muslims who ruled a kingdom there for nearly 1,000 years, exploited widespread anger against President Hadi’s decision to postpone long-awaited elections and his stalled negotiations over a new constitution.

They marched from their stronghold of Saada province to the capital Sanaa and surrounded the presidential palace, placing Hadi under house arrest.

Prompting one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises in decades, a military coalition led by Saudi Arabia intervened on March 26, 2015, at Hadi’s request, after the Houthis continued to sweep the south and threatened to conquer the last government stronghold of Aden.

After the coalition and local militias successfully fended off the Houthi takeover of Aden, they believed retaking Hodeidah could potentially open a pathway to Sanaa.

But since late October, Western powers, outraged by the killing of Jamal Khashoggi and the ensuing humanitarian disaster in Yemen, called on both sides to come to the negotiating table.

After months of intense diplomacy, the office of the UN envoy for Yemen, Martin Griffiths, managed to bring together the warring parties in Sweden where they agreed to a host of confidence-building measures, including a plan for the Houthis and pro-government forces to gradually leave the embattled city, a mass prisoner swap and an agreement to establish a humanitarian corridor in the province of Taiz.

What’s the situation in Hodeidah right now?

While the clashes have been restricted to southern neighbourhoods of Hodeidah city, the sound of gunfire and mortar fire were heard throughout much of the city on Monday.

According to residents, the coalition resumed its air attacks on Friday, and tens of thousands of troops, drawn from local militias, southern separatists and units loyal to the country’s former president, had amassed on the city’s outskirts.

Al-Masirah, a pro-Houthi TV network, reported that at least four people, including a child, were injured in one attack on Monday.

However, one source said the port, which is a major lifeline for millions of Yemenis facing starvation, was spared from the latest round of clashes.

What is the ceasefire and when does it come into effect?

According to the UN, a ceasefire by the parties will come into effect in the city and the three ports of Hodeidah, Ras Isa and Saleef at midnight local time (21:00 GMT) on Monday.

The Houthis will withdraw from the ports, which have been under their control since 2014, in the next 14 days and pull out completely from Hodeidah city over the next 21 days.

A UN-chaired committee including both sides will oversee the withdrawal of forces.

As part of the agreement, the ports will fall under the control of “local forces”, who would then send the ports’ revenues to the country’s Central Bank.

Yemen’s Foreign Minister Khaled al-Yamani declined to specify whether the forces would be solely state security forces but said they would report to the “central authority”.

The Central Bank will then begin paying the salaries of government employees in Houthi-held areas.

As many as 1.2 million civil servants have not received their salaries in nearly two years, leaving health, education and sanitation services without the people and resources needed to keep them running.

What happens next?

The deal, if implemented on the ground, will represent a breakthrough because the port is the gateway for the bulk of humanitarian aid coming into the country.

By demilitarising Hodeidah, the UN will deliver aid to those living in areas whose supply routes have been cut off by fighting since June. 

While a second round of talks is already expected to be held in January, a smooth ceasefire could lead to a fast framework for negotiations and a transitional governing body.

The Houthis, who have little to no support in the south, want a meaningful role in Yemen’s government and to rebuild their stronghold of Saada in the north of the country.

Turkey may launch a new military operation in northern Syria at any moment, President Recep Tayyip Erdogan said, adding US President Donald Trump had given a positive response to Turkey‘s plans.

Erdogan’s remarks on Monday came days after he announced Turkish forces would launch a new cross-border operation against the US-backed Syrian Kurdish People’s Protection Units (YPG) to the east of the Euphrates River in northern Syria.

The YPG is considered a “terrorist” organisation by Ankara. American troops are also located to the east of the Euphrates River.       

Erdogan spoke on the phone with Trump on Friday and they agreed to ensure “more effective coordination” between their countries’ military operations in Syria.

“I spoke with Trump. The terrorists must leave the east of the Euphrates. If they don’t go, we will remove them,” Erdogan vowed during a televised speech in the central province of Konya.

Turkey views the YPG as an offshoot of the outlawed Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), which has battled against the Turkish state since 1984.   

The PKK is blacklisted as a “terrorist” group by the US and European Union, while the YPG is not.    

“They [YPG] are a source of discomfort with their terror corridor” along Turkey’s border, Erdogan said.    

Although Erdogan said Turkey could start an operation “at any moment”, he appeared to indicate there was room for negotiation with the US.

“Since we are strategic partners with America, then we must do what is necessary,” said Erdogan. But he added the US “must fulfill promises” without giving further details. 

US support for YPG

The YPG spearheaded Washington’s fight against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Syria under the banner of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) that it leads.

However, American support for the armed group strained relations between the NATO allies. Ankara has also warned the US about observation posts Washington has been setting up in northern Syria to prevent any altercations between Turkish forces and the YPG.

Turkey launched two military operations to help Syrian rebels to recapture territory in Syria from ISIL and the YPG in August 2016 and January 2018.    

The first offensive in northern Syria lasted until March 2017. The second wrapped up in March 2018 after Ankara-backed rebels captured the YPG-held enclave of Afrin in northwestern Syria.

‘Terrorist presence’

The National Liberation Front (NLF), made up of opposition groups in Syria’s northwestern city of Idlib, said on Monday it would support the Turkish military operation.

“The [Syrian] regime has created a suitable environment for terrorist groups … to the detriment of the Syrian people,” the NLF said in a statement.

“We will support any operation aimed at ensuring regional stability, ending the terrorist presence, and allowing the return of displaced persons to their homes. We will not allow any group – be it the PKK/YPG or anyone else – to divide our country.”

Syria’s seven-year war has killed hundreds of thousands of people and displaced millions since starting in 2011 after the government’s brutal repression of anti-government protests.

It has since spiralled into a complex conflict and proxy war involving many armed groups and world powers.

Afghanistan’s presidential election will take place next year on April 20 with results due by June, the electoral authority in the conflict-ridden country announced.

The 12-day registration of presidential hopefuls will start next week, Gulajan Abdulbadi Sayad, head of the Independent Election Commission, told a news conference in the capital Kabul on Monday.

“All necessary preparations and an action plan are in place. Soon the recruitment of staff for the presidential polls will also begin,” he said.

He pledged the results of the April 20 presidential polls would be out by June.

Afghanistan’s 2014 presidential elections were marred by widespread claims of irregularities, threatening another civil war, before then-US secretary of state John Kerry, intervened and convinced the two main rivals – current President Mohammad Ashraf Ghani and power-sharing CEO Abdullah Abdullah – to form a national unity government.

Ghani’s office says he will seek another term. Other announced hopefuls include Mohammad Haneef Atmar, a former longstanding national security adviser who parted ways with Ghani in August citing “serious differences”.

Taliban meeting with US

Afghan Taliban representatives and US officials met in the United Arab Emirates on Monday amid diplomatic moves towards establishing the basis for talks to end the 17-year war in Afghanistan.

Taliban spokesman Zabihullah Mujahid said representatives from Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and the UAE would also take part in discussions, which follow at least two meetings between Taliban officials and US special peace envoy Zalmay Khalilzad in Qatar.

He said the talks had begun and could take some time.

The US embassy in Kabul would not confirm any meeting was taking place.

Diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict have intensified, although the Taliban have refused to deal directly with the internationally recognised government in Kabul, which it considers an illegitimate foreign-imposed regime.

The Taliban, seeking to reimpose strict Islamic law after its 2001 overthrow, say the presence of international forces in Afghanistan is the main obstacle to peace.

Even as the peace process gathers momentum, fighting has continued with heavy casualties on both sides.

Although the Afghan government has not taken part directly in the talks, a team from Kabul met US and Saudi officials in the UAE on Sunday, national security adviser Hamdullah Mohib said.

Ghani has formed a team to negotiate peace with the Taliban but the armed group said in a statement on Monday that senior members had no plans to meet representatives of the Afghan government in the UAE.

“The talks in UAE will happen with the US envoy in the presence of representatives of some other countries,” said Mujahid in a statement.

As well as establishing direct contacts with the Taliban, US officials have stepped up efforts to win support from countries with an interest in Afghanistan, including Pakistan and Saudi Arabia.

Names* marked with an asterisk have been changed because of the interviewees’ pending legal status. 

Rome, Italy – Soumayla* was just 16 when he left Mali two and a half years ago.

He spent four months in Algeria, where he made some money as a builder, then eight months in Libya which left him with deep psychological scars. There was no pay and his captors often left him up to four days without food.

He managed to leave the western Libyan city of Sabratha to cross the Mediterranean on an overcrowded boat. After a day at sea, he made it onto a rescue ship.

“There are always some who are left behind,” says the 18-year-old, sat on a sofa in his temporary new home in a northern suburb of Rome. “But I decided not to talk about it, I prefer looking ahead.”

A “migration and security” decree, which came into force on October 5 and was written into law by the Italian parliament last month, plunges Soumayla’s future – and that of thousands of other young people like him – into uncertainty.

Known as the “Salvini law” after Matteo Salvini, Italy’s far-right interior minister who drafted it, the decree introduces measures, including a crackdown on asylum rights by abolishing “humanitarian protection” – a stay permit issued to those who do not qualify for refugee status or subsidiary protection but were recognised as vulnerable.

After arriving in Italy, Soumayla went to Italian language school, worked in a summer camp for children, and is now studying towards his high school diploma.

Barbara, a retired psychiatrist, offered him an empty room in her apartment through Refugees Welcome, an organisation that places refugees in families or house shares, subsidising their rent.

He plays football with a local team, and dreams of playing professionally one day.

“Once I get my documents,” says Soumayla, who had his asylum interview last month.

“When they turn 18, they lose the protections that allowed them to stay, and if they can no longer obtain humanitarian protection it means in practice that they become irregular,” said Sara Consolato, a cofounder of the Italian branch of Refugees Welcome, which has an entire programme dedicated to young people who have turned 18.

“Even before, it wasn’t easy for them to get access to the [refugee reception] system because places were always lacking. Now it is the law that prevents them from doing so,” Consolato added.

Minors, victims of trafficking, families with young children, and people with mental or physical vulnerabilities would all have qualified for a humanitarian permit, which was the most common granted form of protection in Italy and finds equivalents in other European countries. It would last for two years and could be converted into a work permit. In its place, the law introduces special permits for restricted categories, valid for a shorter time.

Salvini argues the measure is aimed at ensuring that only “real refugees” will be granted rights and protections in Italy.

Critics say the law will end up condemning asylum seekers already on Italian territory to a life without basic rights – making them more vulnerable to labour exploitation and easier prey for organised crime.

Matteo Villa, a migration researcher at the Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI), calculated that over the next two years, 70,000 more people could become undocumented in Italy than under the previous system.

As well as abolishing humanitarian protection permits, the law also bars those who hold them from accessing Italy’s reception system.

“People who are already in precarious situations could be hit very hard, also on the psychological level,” Carlotta Sami, UNHCR’s spokesperson for southern Europe, told Al Jazeera. “It will be impossible to repatriate tens of thousands of people in a short time. It would take many years, meanwhile effectively condemning local administrations to deal with people who will basically find themselves homeless.”

A large number could be young men who arrived in Italy as minors and could find themselves without any form of support when they turn 18. 

According to Italy’s ministry of labour and social policy, 85 percent of 11,339 unaccompanied minors whose presence was recorded in Italian territory at the end of November 2018 were 16 or 17 years old. At least 11,000 have reached adulthood since last year.

“We know that many of them have started a journey of integration,” Sami told Al Jazeera. “They go to school, attend courses, or have started working. Finding themselves undocumented will bring all that to a halt.”

Futures at risk

“I’m studying to get my diploma so I can work with a contract. Never without one,” Bakary*, an 18-year-old from the Ivory Coast, told Al Jazeera by phone from Palermo.

Aware of the conditions of exploitation African migrants have to endure, particularly in sectors like agriculture, he is studying to become a chef.

He left the Ivory Coast at 14. It took him two years to get to Italy.

“I want to live in a safe place, without fearing anyone. Right now [in Italy], I don’t feel that I have found that place,” Bakary said. “Salvini scares me with his lies. That we are here to steal jobs, that we don’t have a future.”

He turned 18 in the summer and holds a humanitarian protection permit which now bars him from accessing the reception system.

Last month, he found himself homeless when the centre for minors he’d been staying at shut down.

While the government aims at cutting the costs of refugee reception, it is estimated that 18,000 locals will lose their jobs across Italy as a result of the law, about half of those currently employed in the sector.

A drop in arrivals to Sicily, which began after the previous government struck a deal with Libya to keep refugees there, has also been responsible for the downsizing of the sector in the region.

“A lot of centres have been closing in Palermo, there are simply less minors,” said Alice Argento, a lawyer who met Bakary at the centre for minors, where she worked. She has now offered him an empty room in her apartment.

Both private citizens and organisations have been trying to find alternative solutions.

In Palermo, Argento says, a group of professors have put together funds to rent apartments for some of their students.

In the Rome area, the non-profit organisation InMigrazione is fundraising to keep families together and prevent them from becoming homeless.

“But local prefectures have begun issuing revocations. Numbers will swell and at some point we will no longer be able to contain the problem,” Argento told Al Jazeera. “A large number of disillusioned, distressed people on our streets can only generate a situation of widespread insecurity.”

In late November, 24 refugees with humanitarian protection permits were made to leave a reception centre in Calabria, southern Italy. They included a young couple with a five-year-old baby and women victims of trafficking. Up to 200 people are expected to have to leave the centre in Calabria in the coming weeks.

In Rome, councillor for social policies Laura Baldassarre said she was “concerned” that the law would make more than 1,000 people homeless.

But local authorities recently evicted refugees from a camp and from an abandoned building in the capital. While some of them were placed in shelters by the municipality, others found no alternative but the street.

Activists who ran one of the evicted camps, the Baobab near the Tiburtina station in Rome, are now distributing food and giving legal advice to a few dozen people who sleep in and around the station, or transit through it.

Of these, they say that more than 40 in the past month have been people evicted from centres. Most have disappeared without a trace, while others are known to have undertaken the journey to northern Europe, hoping for better luck.